William SHAKESPEARE

Romeo es Julia

The date Henry VI, Part 2 (often noted simply as 2 Henry VI) was written is uncertain. Some editors think it was written before 1 Henry VI, probably in 1591, making this play one of Shakespeare's earliest stage plays. The play takes place after the French wars, when the English lost and regained most of the lands originally won by Henry V. During the wars, depicted in 1 Henry VI, factionalism between the various nobles brought about the death of England's champion warrior. Disagreements between Somerset and York led to a division of nobles into those who supported the red or white rose, setting the stage for the civil war known as the War of the Roses. At the end of 1 Henry VI, Suffolk captured Margaret, daughter of a bankrupt French lord; infatuated with her, Suffolk woos her for Henry and convinces Henry to marry her instead of a more politically motivated match.2 Henry VI concerns the continued scheming in the court, first between Gloucester and Beaufort, then between York's faction and the other lords. The infighting between the lords and the popular uprising by Jack Cade show what happens to the nation when the king in power is too weak to rule effectively. The play charts the rise and fall of many lords and lesser figures within the kingdom.Shakespeare probably made use of historical information gathered from contemporary chronicle histories of the 15th century and the struggles between the Yorks and the Lancasters in the War of the Roses. Particularly he is thought to have used Raphael Holingshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland for details of Cade's rebellion, modeled on the revolt by Wat Tyler in the Peasant's Rebellion of 1381.Scholars agree that two different versions of this play existed in the early modern period. A version of the play was first published in 1594, and another longer version appeared in the First Folio in 1623. The relationship between these two texts has been a long-debated point in Shakespeare scholarship.

Henry VI

CORIOLANUSShakespeare's principal source for the story of Coriolanus is a history written by Plutarch, of a Coriolanus who supposedly lived in ancient Rome. Shared with this source material is a concern for the overlap between virtue and valour; whereas, in Rome courage and bravery in war were considered to be virtues, Shakespeare's play is not completely convinced of this equation. Shakespeare deviates from other literature that focuses on heroes by making Coriolanus a flawed man, whose martial excellence does not necessarily translate into goodness of character. The historical Coriolanus of Plutarch was also a flawed character, similar to Shakespeare's Coriolanus in his great military successes, hubris, banishment, and death at the hands of Rome's enemies, whom he was trying to serve.Although Shakespeare's play follows the basic plot outlines of Coriolanus' story as related in Plutarch, there are a few key differences in Shakespeare's play that add to its timeliness and relevance for the audience. Among these is a change in the motivation for the people's unrest; in the original, the people were stirred to revolt by usury, but in Shakespeare's text, their revolt is motivated by a lack of corn. Just a year before Coriolanus was first performed, there were food shortages throughout England that sparked popular riots by the poor. The people charged the upper classes with hoarding grain, which was also the plebeian charge in Coriolanus; the aristocracy countered, as do their Shakespearean counterparts, that it is bad weather and an overall lack of grain that was to blame. This changed motivation would have been particularly resonant with Shakespeare's audience, as a significant part of their recent history is duplicated exactly in the framework of the play.

Coriolanus

Annotated

The only authoritative edition of Julius Caesar is the 1623 First Folio, which appears to have used the theater company's official promptbook rather than Shakespeare's manuscript. Some anomalies exist, most notably in Act Four where there is confusion concerning the parts of the minor characters. Also, in writings from 1614 and 1625 Shakespeare's contemporary Ben Jonson makes fun of a line from 3.1 where Caesar says, "Know Caesar doth not wrong but with just cause." The First Folio omits the final four words, yet the fact that Jonson was writing in 1625 appears to indicate that the words may have been used in productions of the play even after the publication of the First Folio. The Oxford edition chose to add the four words back into the play, arguing that the apparent contradiction helps to more fully portray Caesar's characteristic god-like aspirations.Julius Caesar opens in 44 B.C., at a time when Rome ruled territories stretching from as far north as Britain to as far east as Persia. However, Rome's military success had come at a serious cost to the political situation in the home city, which was governed by a senate. Rome's senators became increasingly factionalized causing internal disarray, which allowed the more successful military generals gain power. Furthermore, the state suffered from class divisions, and the plebeians had managed to win the right to elect "tribunes," or representatives, giving them some political power. However, women and most of the plebeian men remained excluded from this franchise. Thus, although the republic showed some signs of democracy, the majority did not participate in the general politics.Several men attempted to take over the government during this tumultuous period, most failing in the endeavor. Julius Caesar was a Roman general who had made a name for himself through his successful campaigning of northwest Europe. His advantage lay not only in winning battles, but also in his popularity among the poorer classes in Rome. He possessed innate talent, charisma, ambition, and luck, which, when combined, allowed his political power to increase. Supporters of the traditional form of government realized that men like Caesar posed a serious threat to the republic, and when legal and military attempts failed to stop him, conspirators led by Caius Cassius and Marcus Brutus assassinated him.

Julius Caesar

The plot of Shakespeare's Othello is largely taken from Giraldi Cinthio's Gli Hecatommithi, a tale of love, jealousy, and betrayal; however, the characters, themes, and attitudes of the two works are vastly different, with Shakespeare's play being a more involved study of human nature and psychology. One of the major deviations from the source, is the motivation of the Iago figure. Cithio's Iago was driven to revenge when Desdemona refused to have an affair with him; Iago's motivations are not nearly so plain in Shakespeare's version.Othello also touches upon a major issue in Europe of this time period; the intermingling of Muslim religion and culture with the West. Written just a century after the Muslims were driven out of Spain as a part of the Reconquista, there are obvious threads of hostility within the play about Othello's Moorish origins, and his differences in religion and culture. The hostility between the West and the East is also shown in the conflict between Venice and the Turks; the Christian Venetians want to protect Christendom from the influence of the Muslim Turks, and ironically, Moorish Othello is the one sent to complete this mission.Othello is considered to be a prime example of Aristotelian drama; it focuses upon a very small cast of characters, one of the smallest seen in Shakespeare's body of work, has few distractions from the main plot arc, and concentrates on just a few central themes. As such, it is one of the most intense and focused plays Shakespeare wrote, and has also enjoyed a great amount of popularity from the Jacobean period to the present day

Othello

The first performance of Measure for Measure is believed to have taken place in 1604, during the reign of King James I. By this time, Shakespeare is believed to have begun writing his plays for performance at the Blackfriars theatre, a small, indoor theater mostly frequented by the wealthy. Most modern editions of the play are based upon the edition of Measure for Measure that appeared in the First Folio of 1623.Although the Vienna that Shakespeare portrays is Catholic and not a kingdom, little within the play besides the mention of the setting and the 'friars' sets is apart from Protestant England. Although the Duke is not a monarch per se, he wields complete power in a way similar to James I, who reclaimed his right to absolute rule.However, there are certain key differences between the world portrayed in Measure for Measure, and the post- Elizabethan England that Shakespeare lived in. A ruler would not be able to arbitrarily give up power, and then reclaim it; the theory of "divine right of kings," which was also made popular by James I, would hold this to be a breach of God's law, as the ruler was put in place and sanctioned by God, not by the acts of men. Also, a woman like Isabella who came forth and accused a man of high position of sexual impropriety would face harsh punishment if the charges could not be proven, usually through the testimony of other men of high status. The fact that Shakespeare's play also favors the woman in this dispute, over the man of position, would not have been a common stance during his own time.Is the play still relevant? Its discussions of abuse of power, sexual morality, and mortality certainly are. But, the fact that the play adhered to the convention of Elizabethan comedies, of ending the play on a perhaps artificial note, and with a marriage, is frustrating to modern readers. The end seems to ignore many of the important issues in the play, and does not resolve the questions of morality and power that remain. The Duke's behavior is unsatisfying on many levels, as he is abusing his power and manipulating people shamelessly, while trying to appear as a benevolent ruler. Also, the play's use of marriage as punishment seems rather vulgar and crude, and like a punishment is improper in every possible way.There are a few elements of the play that betray the author's Protestant influence, and some prevalent beliefs of English Protestantism of the time. One is the treatment of Isabella's wish to enter a convent, and remain chaste and pure for the duration of her life. English Protestants openly attacked Catholic ideals of chastity and separation from the world; both were thought to be unnatural, and neither became part of the English Protestant system. Having Isabella wed and leave the convent means that English Protestant values win out over Catholic ones. However, becoming a nun was a haven for women, apart from the patriarchal and oppressive institution of marriage; women in England were supposed to marry and have children with their husbands, but for some a life of chastity and religion might have been preferable.

Measure for Measure

The first performance of Measure for Measure is believed to have taken place in 1604, during the reign of King James I. By this time, Shakespeare is believed to have begun writing his plays for performance at the Blackfriars theatre, a small, indoor theater mostly frequented by the wealthy. Most modern editions of the play are based upon the edition of Measure for Measure that appeared in the First Folio of 1623.Although the Vienna that Shakespeare portrays is Catholic and not a kingdom, little within the play besides the mention of the setting and the 'friars' sets is apart from Protestant England. Although the Duke is not a monarch per se, he wields complete power in a way similar to James I, who reclaimed his right to absolute rule.However, there are certain key differences between the world portrayed in Measure for Measure, and the post- Elizabethan England that Shakespeare lived in. A ruler would not be able to arbitrarily give up power, and then reclaim it; the theory of "divine right of kings," which was also made popular by James I, would hold this to be a breach of God's law, as the ruler was put in place and sanctioned by God, not by the acts of men. Also, a woman like Isabella who came forth and accused a man of high position of sexual impropriety would face harsh punishment if the charges could not be proven, usually through the testimony of other men of high status. The fact that Shakespeare's play also favors the woman in this dispute, over the man of position, would not have been a common stance during his A time

" Toute la symbolique de La Tragédie d'Othello le Maure de Venise se trouve condensée dans ce titre, qui, d'emblée, dit le tragique et ses modalités : l'exil et la rupture, l'altérité, et la présence, au coeur des relations entre les protagonistes, d'une irréductible obscurité. Le titre pose aussi l'antinomie autour de laquelle s'articule la dramaturgie tragique : l'opposition entre l'ombre, dont le Maure est la représentation métonymique, et la lumière, associée aux splendeurs vénitiennes. D'abord concentrées dans le personnage de l'étranger, propagées par les machinations obscures d'Iago, les ténèbres envahissent progressivement l'univers dramatique, jusqu'à la nuit du drame. " Léone Teyssandier. Une édition bilingue d'Othello avec une introduction et une traduction de Léone Teyssandier inédites en poche et saluées par Pierre Assouline.

William SHAKESPEARE

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