Dora L. Costa

I argue that the trend toward single households among retired men 65 years of age or older has been ongoing since 1880. When coresidence is measured by the percentage of elderly men living in the households of their children or other relatives, fully 57 percent of the decline in coresidence among elderly retired men from 1880 to 1990 occurred between 1880 and 1940. This trend has been disguised in more aggregated statistics by the relatively low retirement rates that prevailed in the past and by the unchanging coresidence levels of labor force participants. I investigate the factors that fostered this rise in separate living quarters for the aged by examining the determinants of living arrangements in 1910 among retired veterans receiving Union Army pensions. I find that Union Army pensions exerted a sizable, negative impact on the coresidence rates of the retired, implying that increases in income have always been associated with an increased demand for the privacy and autonomy provided by separate living arrangements. My findings imply that prior to 1940 rising incomes were the most important factor enabling the elderly to live alone. After 1940, increases in the attractiveness of independent living may have played a role.

Union Army Pensions and Elderly Living Arrangements

Displacing the Family

Naomi R. Lamoreaux

The conditions for sustainable growth and development are among the most debated topics in economics, and the consensus is that institutions matter greatly in explaining why some economies are more successful than others over time. This book explores the relationship between economic conditions, growth, and inequality.

Geography, Institutions, and the Knowledge Economy

Understanding Long-Run Economic Growth

Winner of the 1998 Paul A. Samuelson Award given by TIAA-CREF, The Evolution of Retirement is the first comprehensive economic history of retirement in America. With life expectancies steadily increasing, the retirement rate of men over age 64 has risen drastically. Dora L. Costa looks at factors underlying this increase and shows the dramatic implications of her findings for both the general public and the U.S. government. Using statistical, and demographic concepts, Costa sheds light on such important topics as rising incomes and retirement, work and disease, the job prospects of older workers, living arrangements of the elderly, the development of a retirement lifestyle, and pensions and politics. "[Costa's] major contribution is to show that, even without Social Security and Medicare, retirement would have expanded dramatically."—Robert J. Samuelson, New Republic "An important book on a topic which has become popular with historians and is of major significance to politicians and economists."—Margaret Walsh, Business History

An American Economic History, 1880-1990

The Evolution of Retirement

Matthew E. Kahn

When are people willing to sacrifice for the common good? What are the benefits of friendship? How do communities deal with betrayal? And what are the costs and benefits of being in a diverse community? Using the life histories of more than forty thousand Civil War soldiers, Dora Costa and Matthew Kahn answer these questions and uncover the vivid stories, social influences, and crucial networks that influenced soldiers' lives both during and after the war. Drawing information from government documents, soldiers' journals, and one of the most extensive research projects about Union Army soldiers ever undertaken, Heroes and Cowards demonstrates the role that social capital plays in people's decisions. The makeup of various companies--whether soldiers were of the same ethnicity, age, and occupation--influenced whether soldiers remained loyal or whether they deserted. Costa and Kahn discuss how the soldiers benefited from friendships, what social factors allowed some to survive the POW camps while others died, and how punishments meted out for breaking codes of conduct affected men after the war. The book also examines the experience of African-American soldiers and makes important observations about how their comrades shaped their lives. Heroes and Cowards highlights the inherent tensions between the costs and benefits of community diversity, shedding light on how groups and societies behave and providing valuable lessons for the present day.

Dora L. Costa

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