Leonard William King

Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition, by Leonard W. King

An account of the principal facts concerning Babylonian religion and mythology. His account is based upon the cuneiform inscriptions which have been excavated in Mesopotamia during the latter half of the 19th century, and, as far as possible, the Semitic peoples of the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates have been made to reveal their religious beliefs and superstitions by means of their own writings.At the time of original publication in 1899, Leonard William King (1869 - 1919), was Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum.

Babylonian Religion and Mythology

Hammurabi

The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code of ancient Mesopotamia, dating back to about 1772 BC. It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, enacted the code, and partial copies exist on a human-sized stone stele and various clay tablets. The Code consists of 282 laws, with scaled punishments, adjusting "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (lex talionis) as graded depending on social status, of slave versus free man. Nearly one-half of the Code deals with matters of contract, establishing, for example, the wages to be paid to an ox driver or a surgeon. Other provisions set the terms of a transaction, establishing the liability of a builder for a house that collapses, for example, or property that is damaged while left in the care of another. A third of the code addresses issues concerning household and family relationships such as inheritance, divorce, paternity and sexual behavior. Only one provision appears to impose obligations on an official; this provision establishes that a judge who reaches an incorrect decision is to be fined and removed from the bench permanently. A handful of provisions address issues related to military service.One nearly complete example of the Code survives today, on a diorite stele in the shape of a huge index finger, 2.25-metre (7.4 ft) tall (see images at right). The Code is inscribed in the Akkadian language, using cuneiform script carved into the stele. It is currently on display in The Louvre, with exact replicas in the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago, the library of the Theological University of the Reformed Churches (Dutch: Theologische Universiteit Kampen voor de Gereformeerde Kerken) in The Netherlands, the Pergamon Museum of Berlin and the National Museum of Iran in Tehran.Hammurabi ruled for nearly 44 years, c. 1792 to 1750 BC according to the Middle chronology. In the preface to the law, he states, "Anu and Bel called by name me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared Marduk, the patron god of Babylon (The Human Record, Andrea & Overfield 2005), to bring about the rule in the land." On the stone slab there are 44 columns and 28 paragraphs that contained 282 laws.The stele was probably erected at Sippar, city of the sun god Shamash, god of justice, who is depicted handing authority to the king in the image at the top of the stele.In 1901, Egyptologist Gustave Jéquier, a member of an expedition headed by Jacques de Morgan, found the stele containing the Code of Hammurabi in what is now Iran (ancient Susa, Elam), where it had been taken as plunder by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte in the 12th century BC.The Code of Hammurabi was one of several sets of laws in the ancient Near East. The code of laws was arranged in orderly groups, so that everyone who read the laws would know what was required of them. Earlier collections of laws include the Code of Ur-Nammu, king of Ur (c. 2050 BC), the Laws of Eshnunna (c. 1930 BC) and the codex of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (c. 1870 BC), while later ones include the Hittite laws, the Assyrian laws, and Mosaic Law. These codes come from similar cultures in a relatively small geographical area, and they have passages which resemble each other.The Code of Hammurabi is the longest surviving text from the Old Babylonian period. The code has been seen as an early example of a fundamental law regulating a government — i.e., a primitive constitution. The code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, and it also suggests that both the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence.

The Code of Hammurabi

The Seven Tablets of Creation The Enuma Elis by Leonard William King Luzac's Semitic text and translation series. The Enuma Elis (also spelled "Enuma Elish"), is the Babylonian creation mythos (named after its opening words). It was recovered by Austen Henry Layard in 1849 (in fragmentary form) in the ruined Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (Mosul, Iraq), and published by George Smith in 1876. PERHAPS no section of Babylonian literature has been more generally studied than the legends which record the Creation of the world. On the publication of the late Mr. George Smith's work, "The Chaldean Account of Genesis," which appeared some twenty-seven years ago, it was recognized that there was in the Babylonian account of the Creation, as it existed in the seventh century before Christ, much which invited comparison with the corresponding narrative in the Book of Genesis. It is true that the Babylonian legends which had been recovered and were first published by him were very fragmentary, and that the exact number and order of the Tablets, or sections, of which they were composed were quite uncertain; and that, although they recorded the creation of the heavens and of the heavenly bodies, they contained no direct account of the creation of man. In spite of this, however, their resemblance to the Hebrew narrative was unmistakable, and in consequence they at once appealed to a far larger circle of students than would otherwise have been the case. The Enuma Elis has about a thousand lines and is recorded in Old Babylonian on seven clay tablets, each holding between 115 and 170 lines of Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform script. Most of Tablet V has never been recovered but, aside from this lacuna, the text is almost complete. A duplicate copy of Tablet V has been found in Sultantepe, ancient Huzirina, near the modern town of Sanliurfa in Turkey. This epic is one of the most important sources for understanding the Babylonian worldview, centered on the supremacy of Marduk and the creation of humankind for the service of the gods. Its primary original purpose, however, is not an exposition of theology or theogony but the elevation of Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, above other Mesopotamian gods. The Enuma Elis exists in various copies from Babylon and Assyria. The version from Ashurbanipal's library dates to the 7th century BCE. The composition of the text probably dates to the Bronze Age, to the time of Hammurabi or perhaps the early Kassite era (roughly 18th to 16th centuries BCE), although some scholars favour a later date of c. 1100 BCE

The Babylonian Creation Mythos

The Seven Tablets of Creation

Sir Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge

British Museum. Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities

A Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities

Babylonian Magic and Sorcery Being "The Prayers of the Lifting of the Hand". The Cuneiform Texts of a Group of Babylonian and Assyrian Incantations and Magical Formulae Edited with Transliterations, Translations and Full Vocabulary from Tablets of the Kuyunjik Collections Preserved in the British Museum

The Enûma Eliš is the Babylonian creation myth recovered by Austen Henry Layard in 1849 (in fragmentary form) in the ruined Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (Mosul, Iraq), and published by George Smith in 1876.The Enûma Eliš has about a thousand lines and is recorded in Old Babylonian on seven clay tablets, each holding between 115 and 170 lines of text. When the 7 tablets that contain this myth were first discovered, evidence indicated that it was used as a "ritual" myth, meaning it was recited during a ceremony or celebration. That celebration is now known to be the Akitu festival, or Babylonian new year. This myth tells of the creation of the world, and of Marduk's triumph over Tiamat, and how it relates to him becoming king of the gods. In Enuma Elish, the gods consult before creating man (6:4), while Genesis has: "Let us make man in our own image..." (Genesis 1:26) - and in both, the creation of man is followed by divine rest.This epic is one of the most important sources for understanding the Babylonian worldview, centered on the supremacy of Marduk and the creation of humankind for the service of the gods.

Enuma Elish Complete

The Seven Tablets of Creation. English translations

Enuma Elish

H. R. Hall

A highly illustrated 1907 work describing recent discoveries in the Near East and their effect on the interpretation of history.

History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria

With Six Collotype Plates. Supplement

Catalogue of the Cuneiform Tablets in the Kouyunjik Collection of the British Museum

A Book for Beginners : Being a Series of Historical, Mythological, Religious, Magical, Epistolary and Other Texts Printed in Cuneiform Characters with Interlinear Transliteration and Translation : and a Sketch of Assyrian Grammar, Sign-list and Vocabulary

First Steps in Assyrian

The Seven Tablets of Creation: English translations, etc

Referred to as the Enûma Eliš, the Babylonian creation myth is recorded in Old Babylonian on seven clay tablets. Historians believe that this 1,000-line story was recited during religious ceremonies or rituals. The story begins with the introduction of two gods: Apsu, who represents fresh water, and Tiamat, Apsu's wife, who represents oceans. Other gods, including Ea, reside in Tiamat's vast, watery body. Ea and his brothers are very noisy and annoy Apsu and Tiamat. Apsu proposes that they kill the young gods, but Tiamat disagrees. Apsu allies with Mummu, another young god and plots to kill Ea and his brothers. Tiamat warns Ea, who is capable of great magic, of the plot. Ea puts Apsu in a coma, kills him and banishes Mummu from the oceans. This action earns Ea the position of chief god. Time passes and Ea's son, Marduk, grows to be very powerful. Given wind to play with, Marduk causes severe disruption in the oceans with tornadoes and dust storms. Tiamat is disturbed, and after allying with other gods, decides to seek revenge on Marduk to avenge her late husband. After Tiamat creates 11 monsters to destroy the young gods in the oceans, Marduk offers to save the gods if they agree to make him their leader. The gods agree to this condition, and Marduk challenges Tiamat. He defeats her, rips her body in half, and fashions the top into the sky and the bottom into earth. As leader, Marduk creates the calendar, the sun and weather, aligns the planets and stars, and regulates the moon's cycle. Marduk kills Kingu, Tiamat's second husband, and from his blood creates mankind to labor for the gods in his new kingdom. The story goes on to explain that Babylon was established as the residence of the most powerful gods.

Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition

Reginald Campbell Thompson

A New Collation of the Persian, Susian, and Babylonian Texts, with English Translations

The Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia

The Cuneiform Texts with Translations, Transliterations, Etc., from the Original Documents in the British Museum

Annals of the Kings of Assyria

Or, The Babylonian and Assyrian Legends Concerning the Creation of the World and of Mankind

Chronicles Concerning Early Babylonian Kings: Texts and translations

Darius I (King of Persia)

On the Rock of Behistûn in Persia

The Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great

Leonard William King

About

Books

Join the club